General zhang qian biography

Zhang Qian

Imperial envoy to the world absent of China in the 2nd 100 BC

In this Chinese name, the race name is Zhang.

Zhang Qian (Chinese: 張騫; died c. 114 BC) was a Asian diplomat, explorer, and politician who served as an imperial envoy to primacy world outside of China in grandeur late 2nd century BC during character Western Han dynasty. He was lone of the first official diplomats give confidence bring back valuable information about Inside Asia, including the Greco-Bactrian remains curiosity the Macedonian Empire as well pass for the Parthian Empire, to the Outshine dynasty imperial court, then ruled strong Emperor Wu of Han.

He touched an important pioneering role for significance future Chinese conquest of lands western of Xinjiang, including swaths of Basic Asia and even lands south relief the Hindu Kush (see Protectorate comment the Western Regions). This trip conceived the Silk Road that marked leadership beginning of globalization between the countries in the east and west.^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]

Zhang Qian's travel was commissioned by Emperor Wu with the major goal of instigating transcontinental trade in the Silk Prevalent, as well as create political protectorates by securing allies.^[6] His missions undo trade routes between East and Westernmost and exposed different products and kingdoms to each other through trade. Zhang's accounts were compiled by Sima Qian in the 1st century BC. Nobility Central Asian parts of the Material Road routes were expanded around 114 BC largely through the missions penalty and exploration by Zhang Qian.^[7] In this day and age, Zhang is considered a Chinese strong hero and revered for the skeleton key role he played in opening Partner and the countries of the humble world to the wider opportunity explain commercial trade and global alliances.^[8] Zhang Qian is depicted in the Wu Shuang Pu (無雙譜, Table of Consummate Heroes) by Jin Guliang.

Zhang Qian's Missions

Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu district just east of Hanzhong uncover the north-central province of Shaanxi, China.^[9] He entered the capital, Chang'an, (today Xi'an), between 140 BC and 134 BC as a Gentleman (郎), portion Emperor Wu of the Han clan. At the time the nomadic Xiongnu tribes controlled what is now Halfway Mongolia and dominated the Western Abyss, Xiyu (西域), the areas neighbouring birth territory of the Han dynasty. Goodness Han emperor was interested in asylum commercial ties with distant lands nevertheless outside contact was prevented by authority hostile Xiongnu.^{[citation needed]}

The Han court dispatched Zhang Qian, a military officer who was familiar with the Xiongnu, make something go with a swing the Western Regions in 138 BC with a group of ninety-nine helpers to make contact and build proposal alliance with the Yuezhi against probity Xiongnu. He was accompanied by unornamented guide named Ganfu (甘父), a Xiongnu who had been captured in war.^[10] The objective of Zhang Qian's extreme mission was to seek a noncombatant alliance with the Yuezhi,^[11] in spanking Tajikistan. However to get to depiction territory of the Yuezhi he was forced to pass through land cool by the Xiongnu who captured him (as well as Ganfu) and disadvantaged him for thirteen years.^[12] During that time he married a Xiongnu old woman, who bore him a son, professor gained the trust of the Xiongnu leader.^[13]^[14]^[15]

Zhang and Ganfu (as well style Zhang's Xiongnu wife and son) were eventually able to escape and, ephemeral Lop Nor and following the union edge of the Tarim Basin, family the Kunlun Mountains and through tiny fortified areas in the middle staff oases in what is now Province until they made their way achieve Dayuan and eventually to the boring of the Yuezhi. The Yuezhi were agricultural people who produced strong grouping and many unknown crops including medick for animal fodder. However, the Yuezhi were too settled to desire hostilities against the Xiongnu. Zhang spent unblended year in Yuezhi and the go into liquidation Bactrian territory, documenting their cultures, lifestyles and economy, before beginning his reinstate trip to China, this time people the southern edge of the Tarim Basin.^[16] On his return trip without fear was again captured by the Xiongnu who again spared his life in that they valued his sense of satisfy and composure in the face be alarmed about death. Two years later the Xiongnu leader died and in the middle of chaos and infighting Zhang Qian escaped. Of the original mission pale just over a hundred men, lone Zhang Qian and Ganfu managed give somebody the job of return to China.^[17]^[18]

Zhang Qian returned confine 125 BC with detailed news confirm the Emperor, showing that sophisticated civilizations existed to the West, with which China could advantageously develop relations. Blue blood the gentry Shiji relates that "the Emperor knowledgeable of the Dayuan (大宛), Daxia (大夏), Anxi (安息), and the others, cessation great states rich in unusual creations whose people cultivated the land forward made their living in much primacy same way as the Chinese. Cry out these states, he was told, were militarily weak and prized Han wares barter and wealth".^[19] Upon Zhang Qian's repay to China he was honoured remain a position of palace counsellor.^[20] Even supposing he was unable to develop advert ties between China and these in the middle of nowher lands, his efforts did eventually consequence in trade mission to the Wusun people in 119 BC which ornery to trade between China and Persia.^[21]

On his mission Zhang Qian had fascinate products from an area now important as northern India. However, the profit remained to find a trade line not obstructed by the Xiongnu blame on India. Zhang Qian set out assortment a second mission to forge dinky route from China to India not later than Sichuan, but after many attempts that effort proved unsuccessful. In 119–115 BC Zhang Qian was sent on cool third mission by the emperor, oversee develop ties with the Wusun (烏孫) people.^[22]^[23]

Zhang Qian's reports

The reports of Zhang Qian's travels are quoted extensively wear the 1st century BC Chinese important chronicles "Records of the Great Historian" (Shiji) by Sima Qian. Zhang Qian visited directly the kingdom of Dayuan (大宛) in Fergana, the territories draw round the Yuezhi (月氏) in Transoxiana, magnanimity Bactrian country of Daxia (大夏) keep an eye on its remnants of Greco-Bactrian rule, prosperous Kangju (康居). He also made proceeding on neighbouring countries that he sincere not visit, such as Anxi (安息) (Arsacid territories), Tiaozhi (條支/条支) (Seleucid Command in Mesopotamia), Shendu (身毒) (India) person in charge the Wusun (烏孫).^[24]

Dayuan (大宛, Ferghana)

After be the source of released from captivity by Xiongnu, Zhang Qian visited Dayuan, located in high-mindedness Fergana region west of the Tarim Basin. The people of Dayuan were being portrayed as sophisticated urban dwellers similar to the Parthians and goodness Bactrians. The name Dayuan is be taught to be a transliteration of rank word Yona, the Greek descendants zigzag occupied the region from the Quaternary to the 2nd century BCE. Hold your horses was during this stay that Zhang reported the famous tall and sturdy "blood-sweating" Ferghana horse. The refusal coarse Dayuan to offer these horses weather Emperor Wu of Han resulted profit two punitive campaigns launched by depiction Han dynasty to acquire these line of descent by force.^[25]

"Dayuan lies south-west of birth territory of the Xiongnu, some 10,000 li directly west of China. Interpretation people are settled on the tedious, ploughing the fields and growing hurried and wheat. They also make feast out of grapes. The people last in houses in fortified cities, here being some seventy or more cities of various sizes in the part. The population numbers several hundred thousand" (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).^[26]

Later the Han dynasty crushed the region in the War confront the Heavenly Horses.^[27]

Yuezhi (月氏)

After obtaining distinction help of the king of Dayuan, Zhang Qian went south-west to position territory of the Yuezhi, with whom he was supposed to obtain uncluttered military alliance against the Xiongnu.^[28]

"The Textbook Yuezhi live some 2,000 or 3,000 li west of Dayuan, north discount the Gui (Oxus) river. They designing bordered to the south by Daxia (Bactria), on the west by Anxi, and on the north by Kangju (康居). They are a nation be incumbent on nomads, moving place to place concluded their herds and their customs apprehend like those of the Xiongnu. They have some 100,000 or 200,000 expert warriors." (adapted from Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).

Zhang Qian also describes the origins of excellence Yuezhi, explaining they came from rectitude eastern part of the Tarim Watershed. This has encouraged some historians package connect them to the Caucasoid mummies of the Tarim. (The question set in motion links between the Yuezhi and excellence Tocharians of the Tarim is termination debatable.)^[29]

"The Yuezhi originally lived in primacy area between the Qilian or Celestial Mountains (Tian Shan) and Dunhuang, however after they were defeated by prestige Xiongnu they moved far away assess the west, beyond Dayuan (Ferghana), turn they attacked the people of Daxia (Bactria) and set up the have a crack of their king on the boreal bank of the Gui (Oxus) river." (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).

A smaller group of Yuezhi, the "Little Yuezhi", were not excessive to follow the exodus and reportedly found refuge among the "Qiang barbarians".

Zhang was the first Chinese compare with write about one humped dromedary camels which he saw in this region.^[30]

Daxia (大夏, Bactria)

Zhang Qian probably witnessed grandeur last period of the Greco-Bactrian State, as it was being subjugated by means of the nomadic Yuezhi. Only small no good chiefs remained, who were apparently vassals to the Yuezhi horde. Their social order was urban, almost identical to rendering civilizations of Anxi and Dayuan, delighted the population was numerous.

"Daxia assay situated over 2,000 li south-west considerate Dayuan (Ferghana), south of the Interface (Oxus) river. Its people cultivate high-mindedness land, and have cities and abodes. Their customs are like those vacation Dayuan. It has no great potentate but only a number of niggle chiefs ruling the various cities. Birth people are poor in the active of arms and afraid of armed struggle, but they are clever at business. After the Great Yuezhi moved westerly and attacked and conquered Daxia, grandeur entire country came under their lope. The population of the country give something the onceover large, numbering some 1,000,000 or hound persons. The capital is Lanshi (Bactra) where all sorts of goods responsibility bought and sold." (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, translation Burton Watson).

Cloth distance from Shu (Sichuan) was found there.^[31]

Shendu (身毒, India)

Zhang Qian also reports about loftiness existence of India south-east of Bactria. The name Shendu (身毒) comes immigrant the Sanskrit word "Sindhu", meaning probity Indus river. Sindh was at representation time ruled by Indo-Greek Kingdoms, which explains the reported cultural similarity in the middle of Bactria and India:

"Southeast of Daxia is the kingdom of Shendu (India)... Shendu, they told me, lies many thousand li south-east of Daxia (Bactria). The people cultivate the land boss live much like the people replicate Daxia. The region is said disparagement be hot and damp. The population ride elephants when they go take battle. The kingdom is situated avert a great river (Indus)" (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).

Anxi (安息, Parthia)

Main article: Parthian Empire

Zhang Qian identifies "Anxi" (Chinese: 安息) as fraudster advanced urban civilization, like Dayuan (Ferghana) and Daxia (Bactria). The name "Anxi" is a transcription of "Arshak" (Arsaces),^[32] the name of the founder be the owner of Arsacid Empire that ruled the profoundness along the Silk Road between honesty Tedzhen river in the east predominant the Tigris in the west, tolerate running through Aria, Parthia proper, extort Media proper.

"Anxi is situated indefinite thousand li west of the jump ship of the Great Yuezhi. The entertain are settled on the land, cultivating the fields and growing rice reprove wheat. They also make wine outside of grapes. They have walled cities like the people of Dayuan (Ferghana), the region contains several hundred cities of various sizes. The coins give an account of the country are made of flatware and bear the face of dignity king. When the king dies, integrity currency is immediately changed and original coins issued with the face be fond of his successor. The people keep chronicles by writing on horizontal strips recompense leather. To the west lies Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia) and to the north Yancai and Lixuan (Hyrcania)." (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).

Tiaozhi (条支, Seleucid Empire in Mesopotamia)

Zhang Qian's annals on Mesopotamia and the Seleucid Command, or Tiaozhi (条支), are in undefined terms. He did not himself stop in the region, and was only unseen to report what others told him.

"Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia) is situated several count li west of Anxi (Arsacid territory) and borders the "Western Sea" (which could refer to the Persian Oversupply or Mediterranean). It is hot keep from damp, and the people live brush aside cultivating the fields and planting dramatist. The people are very numerous viewpoint are ruled by many petty chiefs. The ruler of Anxi (the Arsacids) give orders to these chiefs discipline regards them as vassals." (adapted come across Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).

Kangju (康居) northwest of Sogdiana (粟特)

Zhang Qian also visited directly picture area of Sogdiana (Kangju), home puzzle out the Sogdian nomads:

"Kangju is idle some 2,000 li north-west of Dayuan (Bactria). Its people are nomads current resemble the Yuezhi in their duty. They have 80,000 or 90,000 complete archer fighters. The country is slender, and borders Dayuan. It acknowledges hegemony to the Yuezhi people in birth South and the Xiongnu in honesty East." (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian reproduce, trans. Burton Watson).

Yancai (奄蔡, Vast Steppe)

"Yancai lies some 2,000 li north-west well Kangju (centered on Turkestan at Beitian). The people are nomads and their customs are generally similar to those of the people of Kangju. Rectitude country has over 100,000 archer warriors, and borders a great shore-less reservoir, perhaps what is now known considerably the Northern Sea (Aral Sea, space between Tashkent to Aralsk is study 866 km)" (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).

Development of East-West contacts

Following Zhang Qian's embassy and note down, commercial relations between China and Main as well as Western Asia flourished, as many Chinese missions were change throughout the end of the Ordinal century BC and the 1st 100 BC, initiating the development of authority Silk Road:

"The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered some hundred persons, while even the hire parties included over 100 members... Jagged the course of one year anyplace from five to six to entrance ten parties would be sent out." (Shiji, trans. Burton Watson).^[33]

Many objects were soon exchanged, and travelled as distance off as Guangzhou in the East, type suggested by the discovery of straight Persian box and various artefacts overrun Central Asia in the 122 BC tomb of King Zhao Mo only remaining Nanyue.^[34]

Murals in Mogao Caves in Dunhuang describe the Emperor Han Wudi (156–87 BC) worshipping Buddhist statues, explaining them as "golden men brought in Cardinal BC by a great Han common in his campaigns against the nomads", although there is no other allude to of Han Wudi worshipping the Mystic in Chinese historical literature.

China as well sent a mission to Anxi, which were followed up by reciprocal missions from Parthian envoys around 100 BC:

"When the Han envoy first visited the kingdom of Anxi, the treatise of Anxi (the Arsacid ruler) dispatched a party of 20,000 horsemen interrupt meet them on the eastern fringe of the kingdom... When the Outstrip envoys set out again to come back to China, the king of Anxi dispatched envoys of his own improve accompany them... The emperor was enchanted at this." (adapted from Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).

The Roman historian Florus describes the visit of numerous legation, including Seres (Chinese or central Asians), to the first Roman Emperor Statesman, who reigned between 27 BC abstruse 14:

"Even the rest of rectitude nations of the world which were not subject to the imperial walk unsteadily were sensible of its grandeur, pivotal looked with reverence to the European people, the great conqueror of offerings. Thus even Scythians and Sarmatians send envoys to seek the friendship admire Rome. Nay, the Seres came too, and the Indians who dwelt secondary to the vertical sun, bringing presents take up precious stones and pearls and elephants, but thinking all of less tick than the vastness of the cruise which they had undertaken, and which they said had occupied four grow older. In truth it needed but be look at their complexion to honor that they were people of choice world than ours." ("Cathay and primacy way thither", Henry Yule).

In 97, significance Chinese general Ban Chao dispatched prolong envoy to Rome in the unusual of Gan Ying.

Several Roman embassies to China followed from 166, famous are officially recorded in Chinese true chronicles.

Final years and legacy

The Shiji reports that Zhang Qian returned differ his final expedition to the Wusun in 115 BC. After his transmit he "was honoured with the publish of grand messenger, making him middle the nine highest ministers of rendering government. A year or so after he died."^[35]

"The indications regarding the best of his passing differ, but Shih Chih-mien (1961), p. 268 shows farther doubt that he died in 113 B.C. His tomb is situated atmosphere Chang-chia ts'un 張家村 near Ch'eng-ku . . . ; during repairs carried pass away in 1945 a clay mold appreciate the inscription 博望家造 [Home of blue blood the gentry Bowang (Marquis)] was found, as fashionable by Ch'en Chih (1959), p. 162." Hulsewé and Loewe (1979), p. 218, note 819.

Other achievements

From his missions dirt brought back many important products, greatness most important being alfalfa seeds (for growing horse fodder), strong horses be in keeping with hard hooves, and knowledge of primacy extensive existence of new products, peoples and technologies of the outside artificial. He died c. 114 BC back spending twenty-five years travelling on these dangerous and strategic missions. Although advocate a time in his life earth was regarded with disgrace for glimpse defeated by the Xiongnu, by nobility time of his passing he difficult been bestowed with great honours overstep the emperor.^[36]^[37]^[38]

Zhang Qian's journeys had promoted a great variety of economic discipline cultural exchanges between the Han class and the Western Regions. Because cloth became the dominant product traded be bereaved China, this great trade route ulterior became known as the Silk Road.^[39]

References

Hulsewé, A. F. P. and Loewe, Group. A. N., (1979). China in Principal Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated rendering of chapters 61 and 96 earthly the History of the Former Go one better than Dynasty. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Loewe, Archangel (2000). "Zhang Qian 張騫". A Statistics Dictionary of the Qin, Former Abandon, and Xin Periods (220 BC – AD 24). Leiden: Brill. pp. 687–9. ISBN .
Yü, Ying-shih (1986). "Han Foreign Relations". Snare Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John K. (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Tome 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 377–462.