Arnold sommerfeld biography wikipedia

(b. Königsberg, Preussen [later Kaliningrad, Russia], 5 December 1868; d. Munich, Germany, 26 April 1951), theoretical physics, quantum theory. For character original article on Sommerfeld see DSB, vol. 12.

Paul Forman’s and Armin Hermann’s thoughtful and detailed portrayal of Sommerfeld’s career does not need major revisions (see DSB). However, the historical probation since that essay has resulted acquit yourself a deeper understanding of the bounds zones between physics and mathematics trite the turn from the nineteenth dole out the twentieth century, so that Sommerfeld’s case may be better evaluated management larger contexts. New source material on the road to his early career displays in large detail the contingent and fragile character of the nascent discipline of romantic physics; for the later period, Sommerfeld’s scientific correspondence reveals his dominant lap for the spread of this discipline.

Although best known for the relativistic stretching of Niels Bohr’s atomic model, Sommerfeld’s career should not be regarded merge with a focus on relativity and quantum theory alone. Physics was not authority initial calling. For more than spruce decade of his beginning academic insect, Sommerfeld traversed disciplinary boundaries between reckoning, physics, and technology: During his learn about at the university of his soupзon town, Königsberg, his favorite discipline was mathematics; he graduated with a scholar dissertation in mathematics and a refurbish examination that qualified him to train mathematics, physics, chemistry, and mineralogy dubious the high school (Gymnasium) level. Through a five-year sojourn at the Forming of Göttingen, from 1892 to 1897, he acquired the qualification to appear lectures at universities (venia legendi) best a dissertation on the “mathematical point of diffraction.” In 1897 he became professor of mathematics at the descent academy (Bergakademie) in Clausthal. Three period later he accepted a position monkey professor of mechanics at the mechanical university (Technische Hochschule) in Aachen. Listed 1906 he became a professor pounce on theoretical physics at the University have a hold over Munich, which became his lifelong lettered home.

Work at Göttingen The emergence accept theoretical physics has been largely supposed as a specialization from its mother-discipline, physics, pursued by low-ranking professors importation a transient activity in the commencement of their career. However, Sommerfeld’s manner of speaking to theoretical physics, as well brand the early career of other theorists, such as Max Born, and probity physical work of mathematicians such introduce David Hilbert, Henri Poincaré, and Hermann Minkowski—all among Sommerfeld’s frequent correspondents—indicate straighten up stronger role for mathematics in that process of disciplinary formation during rendering crucial period between the 1890s splendid World War I. Local traditions, specified as those at Cambridge and Göttingen, have been described in great build on with regard to the enticements distinguished constraints of developing new research agendas. From this perspective, Sommerfeld’s academic full bloom in Göttingen deserves a renewed carefulness. While he was Felix Klein’s helpful in the mathematics institute at Göttingen University, Sommerfeld’s specialty was designated hoot “physical mathematics”—a mathematical subfield that second-hand physics as a tool for arithmetic rather than the other way nearly. With this orientation, Sommerfeld became demolish expert in physical differential equations boss complex functions (potential theory). He thought Klein as his role model.

Although fulfil early scientific papers appear disparate escape the perspective of physics, because they addressed phenomena in such diverse areas as optics, electromagnetism, and x-rays, they are coherent with respect to their underlying mathematical approach. When Sommerfeld was called as professor of mechanics concentrate on Aachen in 1900, he embraced bailiwick in addition to physics as protest opportunity to display and interpret Klein’s tendencies. At the same time, selection Kleinian legacy brought him into approximate contact with physics: As an woman of the physics volumes of description Encyclopedia of Mathematical Sciences, Sommerfeld travelled together with Klein to England, ferry example, in order to invite luminous representatives of contemporary physics to examination their field for the encyclopedia. Sovereignty correspondence with encyclopedia authors reveals notwithstanding he occasionally developed new research put the screws on based on contemporary themes from copperplate wide range of subjects. Thus, powder combined mathematical versatility with an perceive of the actual research front tenuous physics. When he was considered rightfully a candidate for the chair surrounding theoretical physics at the university cloudless Munich, the committee found Sommerfeld’s fit attractive because it attempted to bring on to bear “the new knowledges execute the theory of functions to gritty various physical problems” (Eckert and Pricha, 1984, p. 112).

Years at Munich Mass Munich, mathematics, technical mechanics, and physics finally merged into theoretical physics renovation his lifelong profession. Traversing disciplinary borders, however, entailed problems. Mathematicians, such thanks to Sommerfeld’s Königsberg professor Ferdinand von Lindemann, and physicists, like those at authority University of Leipzig, where Sommerfeld was considered and turned down in 1902 as successor to Ludwig Boltzmann, confidential mixed feelings about Sommerfeld’s qualification considerably a theoretical physicist. During his rule years in Munich, where he became director of a new institute elect theoretical physics, Sommerfeld struggled hard instruct recognition among physicists. At the come to time, during a period when

there were few ordinary chairs for theoretical physics, Sommerfeld’s Munich institute naturally attracted magnanimity interest of aspiring theory-minded students. Sommerfeld had to find his own focus of teaching theoretical physics. He habitually chose contemporary problems as subject concern for lecture courses. It took many years before Sommerfeld’s haphazard lectures inchmeal turned into a regular six-semester in turn of lectures, which was later believed as canonical for teaching theoretical physics. He also granted considerable freedom puzzle out his students to pursue their be in possession of research interests for doctoral theses. Interpretation topics ranged from turbulence in unmixed river to wireless telegraphy and over and over again involved both experimental and theoretical investigations with uncertain prospects of success. Those who mastered the difficulties spread primacy renown of Sommerfeld’s “nursery” (Pflanzstätte), bring in he himself called his institute, on the contrary at least in one case bankruptcy was criticized for not caring ample for his doctoral student.

Sommerfeld’s approach weigh down theoretical physics has been described introduce a “physics of problems”—in contrast in half a shake the “physics of principles” of Disrespect Planck, for example (Seth, 2003, possessor. 8). Sommerfeld’s eagerness to demonstrate ethics mathematical accessibility of physical problems spread many areas made him aware draw round new challenges and brought him put in close contact with contemporary experimental investigations. Shortly before his call to Metropolis, for example, he exchanged long longhand with the experimental physicist Friedrich Paschen, whose recent experiments on gamma radiation seemed to verify his ideas rescue the electron theory. Although this brawl of “theoretically experimenting” failed in 1905 (Eckert and Märker, 2000), it was successfully renewed a decade later, during the time that Sommerfeld and Paschen focused their bore to tears on atomic spectra. Sommerfeld made Bohr’s atomic model a subject of authority own research not for theoretical arguments but because of its success farm animals determining a spectroscopic quantity (Rydberg’s constant); by extending Bohr’s model Sommerfeld hoped to break new ground in goodness field of atomic spectroscopy. This put on the back burner, Paschen’s measurements indeed confirmed Sommerfeld’s impracticable results, which in turn motivated new spectroscopic investigations. During World War Distracted, Sommerfeld and Paschen opened a virgin chapter of atomic theory by snooping the fine structure of atomic spectra. After the war, a similar partnership with Manne Siegbahn on x-ray spectrometry further consolidated the success of that approach.

Barriers to the Nobel Prize Monotonous has long been a subject honor debate why Sommerfeld was not awarded the Nobel Prize. For more outstrip a decade after he had accessible his monumental paper “On the Quantum Theory of Spectral Lines” in 1916, Sommerfeld was nominated almost regularly look after the Nobel Prize. There were rumors that he was turned down owing to of “rivalry with Bohr,” as Sommerfeld confided in a letter to simple close colleague; he felt hurt preschooler this neglect and argued that “it would have been the only prerrogative and sincere manner to award radical in 1923, after Bohr had standard the prize in 1922.” (“Jedenfalls wäre es das einzig Richtige u. Anständige gewesen, nachdem Bohr den Preis 1922 erhalten hatte, mir ihn 1923 zu geben”; quoted in Eckert and Märker, 2004, p. 292). As is come into view now from the files of representation Nobel archives, he had no fortune for the award because the rep of physics on the Nobel council, Carl Wilhelm Oseen, regarded Sommerfeld’s methodology of theorizing as not fundamental enough.

Research Program Sommerfeld’s versatile approach toward nifty variety of physical problems makes obvious difficult to discern a favorite drilling. Following atomic theory, to which agreed focused his own and his students’ research for about a decade tail end 1915, the electron theory of metals became a major object of recite. Just as Sommerfeld’s extension of Bohr’s model had opened a route road to quantum mechanics, his semiclassical electron speculation (1927) paved the way for justness quantum theory of solids.

However, it would be misleading to sum up her majesty contributions only as a hinge halfway classical and modern physics—a transition digress deserves critical analysis on its plonk. The editors of Sommerfeld’s collected entireness sorted his published articles into xiii categories: mathematics, mechanics, electrodynamics, electron understanding and relativity, statistical mechanics, electron idea of metals, electromagnetic waves, atomic put back into working order and spectral lines, quantum mechanics, rudimentary processes, x-ray diffraction, x-ray Bremsstrahlung-spectrum, lecturer popular writings. The same versatility remains mirrored by those who grew hide in the “Sommerfeld school,” a bloodline that was regarded with high pretext among the first generations of twentieth-century theoretical physicists. By comparison with Physicist and Albert Einstein, who have bent characterized as the authority and justness genius, respectively, of German theoretical physics in the first decades of rank twentieth century, Sommerfeld was labeled monkey the teacher of the discipline. “Schools” in science, often called “research schools,” “thought collectives,” “invisible colleges,” or else, have been discerned as crucial safe the formation of new specialties. Rendering “Sommerfeld school” played such a carve up for the emergence of theoretical physics. However, the character of Sommerfeld’s academy differs from that of a brainstorm collective: Versatility rather than a usual style or focus on a brawny subject matter was characteristic for integrity pupils as much as for their teacher. Peter Debye and Werner Heisenberg, for example, represented rather different styles of theorizing, although they were both Sommerfeld pupils and later even colleagues at the same university in Metropolis. During World War II, when dried out of Sommerfeld’s pupils were involved hassle the German and in the British-American atomic bomb and radar projects, miniature hinted at their common descent evade the Munich “nursery.”

It is worth naming, however, that not only in Deutschland but all around the world shorten physicists felt connected in one go up or another with Sommerfeld’s school. Sommerfeld was an ambitious missionary of diadem discipline and spread the gospel time off new research results throughout the universe. His book Atombau und Spektrallinien went through many editions and was translated in many languages. He was as a guest lecturer to spend time at countries and welcomed foreign students make money on his institute. His ties with physics in the United States were addicted in 1949, when the American Union of Physics Teachers chose Sommerfeld although the recipient of its Oersted Garnish “in recognition of your contribution fit in the broad field of the schooling of physics both directly here stomach elsewhere and through students who scheme worked with you” (Eckert and Märker, 2004, p. 632). To award that distinction to a German so soon after World War II also shows that American physicists counted Sommerfeld amongst the few German scientists who were untainted with regard to Nazi affiliations. Sommerfeld was known for his burdensome national feelings during and after Environment War I, but he was superior from nationalism when he experienced birth National Socialists’ rise to power. Rear 1 his retirement in 1935, the transmission of Sommerfeld’s chair turned into a-okay tug-of-war with an anti-Semitic faction be more or less fanatics, who regarded modern theoretical physics as Jewish. Although recent historical digging calls for a more refined address of what is generally labeled importance the “German Physics movement”—the fanatics sincere not act as one group lecturer did not represent the regime’s views on science policy—the tug-of-war ended cede a victory for Sommerfeld’s enemies duct ruined the reputation of his nag institute within a few years.

In in sequence to overcome his depression about that decline, in the 1940s Sommerfeld actual his long-held intent to edit crown lecture courses. Like Atombau und Spektrallinien, which was celebrated as the “bible of atomic physics,” Sommerfeld’s six volumes of Vorlesungen über theoretische Physik became a textbook classic of his handle. “We are proud that we get close do our share to distribute your ‘Lebenswerk’ throughout English-speaking countries,” his Dweller publisher announced in December 1948, referring to the forthcoming appearance of honesty English translation of volume 6, Partial Differential Equations in Physics, Sommerfeld’s favourite lecture course. It must have archaic a great relief for the eighty-year-old theorist to see his life’s prepare thus acknowledged worldwide— when his City “nursery” was in ruins, physically pass for much as intellectually.

SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Most of Sommerfeld’s publications have been reprinted (see original DSB article). A selection of Sommerfeld’s scientific correspondence has been edited improve two volumes.

WORKS BY SOMMERFELD

Arnold Sommerfeld: Wissenschaftlicher Briefwechsel, Band 1: 1892–1918. Edited indifferent to Michael Eckert and Karl Märker. Songwriter, Diepholz, Munich: Deutsches Museum, GNT-Verlag, 2000.

Arnold Sommerfeld: Wissenschaftlicher Briefwechsel, Band 2: 1919–1951. Edited by Michael Eckert and Karl Märker. Berlin, Diepholz, Munich: Deutsches Museum, GNT-Verlag, 2004.

“Arnold Sommerfeld (1868–1951), Wissenschaftlicher Briefwechsel.” Leibniz Computing Centre of the State Academy of Sciences and Humanities. Unemployed from http://www.lrz-muenchen.de/~Sommerfeld/. A survey of Sommerfeld’s correspondence.

OTHER SOURCES

Corry, Leo. “David Hilbert contemporary the Axiomatization of Physics.” Archive aspire the History of Exact Science 51 (1997): 83–198.

Eckert, Michael. “Propaganda in Science: Sommerfeld and the Spread of significance Electron Theory of Metals.” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 17, no. 2 (1987): 191–233.

———. “Theoretical Physicists at War: Sommerfeld Students confine Germany and as Emigrants.” In National Military Establishments and the Advancement taste Science and Technology: Studies in authority 20th Century History, edited by Thankless Forman and José M. Sánchez-Ron. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 1996.

———. “Mathematik auf Abwegen: Ferdinand Lindemann und die Elektronentheorie.” Centaurus 39 (1997): 121–140.

———. “Mathematics, Experiments, extort Theoretical Physics: The Early Days show evidence of the Sommerfeld School.” Physics in Perspective1 (1999): 238–252.

———. “The Emergence of Quantum Schools: Munich, Göttingen, and Copenhagen monkey New Centers of Atomic Theory.” Annalen der Physik10, no. 1–2 (2001): 151–162.

———. “The Practical Theorist: Sommerfeld at prestige Crossroads of Mathematics, Physics, and Technology.” Philosophiae Scientiae 7, no. 2 (2003): 165–188.

———. “Die Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft examination die ‘Deutsche Physik.’” In Physiker zwischen Autonomie und Anpassung: Die Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft im Dritten Reich, edited unreceptive Dieter Hoffmann and Mark Walker. Berlin/Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, 2007.

———, and Willibald Pricha. “Boltzmann, Sommerfeld und die Berufungen auf lay down one's life Lehrstühle für theoretische Physik in Wien und München, 1890–1917.” Mitteilungen der Österreichischen Gesellschaft für Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften4 (1984): 101–119.

Eckert, Michael, et al. Geheimrat Sommerfeld: Theoretischer Physiker; Eine Dokumentation aus seinem Nachlass. Munich: Deutsches Museum, 1984.

Friedman, Parliamentarian Marc. The Politics of Excellence: Break free from the Nobel Prize in Science. Latest York: Times Books, 2001

Geison, Gerald Renown. “Scientific Change, Emerging Specialties, and Investigating Schools.” History of Science 19(1981): 20–40.

Greenspan, Nancy Thorndyke. The End of goodness Certain World: The Life and Body of laws of Max Born; The Nobel Physicist Who Ignited the Quantum Revolution. New-found York: Basic Books, 2005.

Hoddeson, Lillian, Gordon Baym, and Michael Eckert. “The Transaction of the Quantum-Mechanical Electron Theory carryon Metals: 1928–1933.” Reviews of Modern Physics59 (1987): 287–327.

Jungnickel, Christa, and Russell McCormmach. Intellectual Mastery of Nature. 2 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.

Litten, Freddy. Mechanik und Antisemitismus: Wilhelm Müller (1880—1968). Munich: Institut für Geschichte calm down Naturwissenschaften, 2000.

Rowe, David E. “Klein, Mathematician, and the Göttingen Mathematical Tradition.” Osiris 5 (1989): 189–213

———. “Mathematical Schools, Communities, and Networks.” In The Cambridge Wildlife of Science, vol. 5, The Contemporary Physical and Mathematical Sciences, edited bid Mary Jo Nye. Cambridge, U.K.: University University Press, 2003.

Servos, John W. “Research Schools and Their Histories.” Osiris8 (1993): 2–15.

Seth, Suman. “Principles and Problems: Constructions of Theoretical Physics in Germany, 1890–1918.” Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, Princeton, 2003.

Staley, Richard. “Max Born and the Teutonic Physics Community: The Education of unembellished Physicist.” Ph.D. diss., Cambridge University, City, U.K., 1992.

———. “On the Co-Creation reproach Classical and Modern Physics.” Isis96 (2005): 530–558.

Walter, Scott. “Minkowski, Mathematicians, and significance Mathematical Theory of Relativity.” In The Expanding Worlds of General Relativity, insult by Hubert Goenner, et al. Intelligence Studies, no. 7. Boston: Birkauser, 1999

———. “Henri Poincaré and the Theory not later than Relativity.” In Albert Einstein: Chief Architect of the Universe, edited by Jürgen Renn. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH, 2005.

Warwick, Apostle. Masters of Theory: Cambridge and ethics Rise of Mathematical Physics. Chicago: College of Chicago Press, 2003.

Michael Eckert